Breaking the Silence: From Erasure to Recognition

Recently, while taking my Mitacs research students to Castle Mountain Internment Camp Memorial in Alberta, I was reminded of the profound connections between historical erasure and contemporary struggles for truth and justice. Standing before the solitary statue titled “Why?”—Canada’s first memorial to commemorate those imprisoned during the country’s first national internment operations—we witnessed how communities can reclaim silenced narratives through persistent advocacy and collective memory.

The Forgotten Chapter: 1914-1920 Internment Operations

Between 1914 and 1920, Canada implemented its first national internment operations under the War Measures Act. Thousands of immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire—the majority of Ukrainian origin, including Canadian citizens—were imprisoned as “enemy aliens.” The Castle Mountain camp, operational from July 14, 1915, to July 15, 1917, held up to 660 people in tents within barbed wire enclosures. During harsh winters, internees were relocated to military barracks near Banff’s Cave and Basin, where they performed forced labor on park infrastructure projects.

The conditions were notoriously harsh. Escapes were frequent, abuse was widespread and documented but never corrected by Ottawa. The treatment violated international norms and was condemned by neutral observers and the Central Powers. Yet for decades, this story remained largely untold in mainstream Canadian historical narratives.

The Systematic Destruction of Evidence

What makes this history particularly troubling is the deliberate erasure that followed. In the 1950s, files from the Office of the Custodian of Enemy Property, as well as personnel files pertaining to the internment operations, were destroyed by the Canadian government. Multiple scholarly sources confirm that “relevant archival materials were destroyed at the National Archives of Canada after World War II,” making the historical reconstruction of these events exceptionally challenging.

As Angie Hesje shared with me on Facebook, the original government records were destroyed in the 1950’s, forcing historians and communities to piece together this history through alternative means. This systematic destruction meant that the very existence of the camps had to be painstakingly reconstructed through:

• Family testimonies from those willing to overcome their fear and share
• RCMP records that survived the purge
• Community archives maintained by affected families
• Personal documents hidden and preserved across generations

Even today, many families remain hesitant to discuss this chapter of their history. The fear that was instilled over a century ago continues to shape how these stories are shared—or not shared.

Beyond the Camps: A Climate of Surveillance

The internment camps were only the most visible aspect of a broader system of oppression. Many Ukrainians and others who weren’t imprisoned were issued “Enemy Alien” cards that they were required to carry at all times. They needed permission from local authorities—often the RCMP—to leave their farms, even to take their grain and goods to market. This created a climate of fear that extended far beyond the camp gates, affecting entire communities for generations.

Crucially, it wasn’t only men who were imprisoned. Angie shared with me that the whole families, including children, were detained. The trauma rippled through generations, creating what we now understand as intergenerational trauma—wounds passed down through families who learned that their very identity made them suspect in the eyes of the state.

The Long Road to Recognition

The memorial at Castle Mountain, erected on August 12, 1995, represents decades of advocacy by Ukrainian-Canadian communities. Significantly, it was funded entirely by Ukrainian-Canadian communities in Banff and Calgary, working with the Ukrainian-Canadian Civil Liberties Association, without any federal assistance. This grassroots funding reflects both the community’s determination to preserve this history and the government’s initial reluctance to acknowledge it.

It wasn’t until 2008—nearly a century later—that a settlement was reached regarding acknowledgment and redress for WWI internment. The settlement funded educational initiatives, including the “Сто” (One Hundred) project, which unveiled 100 aluminum plaques simultaneously across Canada on August 22, 2014—the 100th anniversary of the War Measures Act.

Connecting Past and Present: Lessons for Today

Standing at Castle Mountain with my students, we discussed how this history connects to contemporary struggles for justice and recognition. The parallels are striking:

Historical Erasure and Memory Work: Just as Ukrainian families preserved their stories despite official silencing, Indigenous communities in Canada have maintained oral histories and traditions despite residential school policies designed to “kill the Indian in the child.” Both communities understand that preserving language, culture, and memory is an act of resistance.

The Fragility of Civil Liberties: The speed with which Canadian citizens of Ukrainian descent became “enemy aliens” reminds us how quickly democratic societies can strip away civil liberties during times of crisis. This lesson resonates powerfully in our current global context.

Community-Led Recognition: The grassroots nature of the memorial’s creation mirrors how many marginalized communities must fight for recognition of their experiences, often without government support.

The Universal Pattern of Oppression

Canada’s “welcoming” immigration history includes dark chapters affecting many communities: Chinese head taxes and exclusion acts, Japanese internment during WWII, the treatment of Doukhobors, and countless other examples. Each community’s struggle for recognition and redress follows similar patterns of initial denial, systematic erasure of evidence, community-led memory work, and eventual—often partial—acknowledgment.

Why Hidden Histories Matter

The memorial’s location along the Bow Valley Parkway—difficult to find despite being in one of Canada’s most visited national parks—serves as a metaphor for how these histories remain marginalized. The lack of clear signage reflects ongoing reluctance to fully confront uncomfortable truths about Canadian history.

Yet the statue’s questioning pose—arms slightly raised, face tilted skyward—continues to ask “Why?” to every visitor. In that simple question lies both the pain of historical injustice and the hope that by remembering, we can build a more just future.

The Power of Intergenerational Memory

As I’ve learned from working with Indigenous students in Manitoba, and from my own Ukrainian heritage, preserving ancestral knowledge is both a privilege and a responsibility. My God Mama taught me about concentration camps in Siberia, my Mama shared stories of the Holodomor, and my Canadian Mama allowed me to live freely while honoring Ukrainian-Canadian experiences on the prairies.

These stories—whether they come from residential school survivors, internment camp families, or refugees fleeing contemporary conflicts—carry wisdom about resistance, resilience, and the importance of bearing witness. They remind us that those who hold power often try to silence these narratives, but communities persist in sharing them across generations.

Moving Forward: Education as Resistance

Today, educators like Dr. Juliana West, Andrea Malysh who dedicates her life to teaching about internment in Canada, Kathy Zozula who shares Holodomor stories, and countless others continue this work of making visible what was meant to be forgotten. Each classroom becomes a space where silenced histories can be voiced, where students become knowledge holders who will carry these stories forward.

The over 6,000 students I’ve been privileged to learn from and teach have shown me that education is indeed a form of resistance against forgetting. When we share difficult histories—whether about Ukrainian internment, residential schools, or contemporary struggles for justice—we honor our ancestors and protect future generations.

Conclusion: Never Forget, Never Again

The Castle Mountain memorial stands as both a somber reminder of how civil liberties can be eroded and a testament to communities who refuse to let difficult histories be forgotten. Its question—”Why?”—challenges each of us to examine our assumptions and stand guard against the forces that can quickly transform neighbors into “enemies.”

As we face ongoing global conflicts, refugee crises, and the rise of authoritarianism worldwide, the lessons from Castle Mountain remain painfully relevant. The memorial reminds us that behind every policy, every act of exclusion, every moment of crisis that strips away civil liberties, are real human stories that demand to be remembered, understood, and honored.

History has a way of repeating itself, but only if we let it. Through education, memory work, and solidarity across communities, we can ensure that the question “Why?” leads not just to understanding the past, but to building a more just future for all.

Truth will become visible and voiced one day—if we keep sharing, keep teaching, and keep asking “Why?”

Ukrainian Canadian Internment Bibliography: APA 7th Edition

The Ukrainian Canadian internment operations of 1914-1920 represent Canada’s first national internment program, affecting over 8,000 individuals of Ukrainian and other Austro-Hungarian backgrounds. This bibliography provides the definitive collection of primary and secondary sources documenting this critical period in Canadian civil liberties history. All sources have been verified for accuracy, with complete publication information and functional URLs provided where applicable.

Books

Contemporary Academic Works

Avery, D. H. (1979). “Dangerous Foreigners”: European immigrant workers and labour radicalism in Canada, 1896-1932. McClelland and Stewart. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1971993809804832331

Hinther, R. L., & Mochoruk, J. (Eds.). (2020). Civilian internment in Canada: Histories and legacies. University of Manitoba Press. https://uofmpress.ca/books/civilian-internment-in-canada

Kordan, B. S. (2002). Enemy aliens, prisoners of war: Internment in Canada during the Great War. McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://cius40.artsrn.ualberta.ca/8-2/round-table-iv-teaching-ukrainian-studies/bohdan-kordan-change-challenge-purpose-future-ukrainian-studies-canada/  https://www.mqup.ca/enemy-aliens–prisoners-of-war-products-9780773523500.php

Kordan, B. S. (2025). No place like home: Enemy alien internment in Canada during the Great War. McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://www.mqup.ca/no-place-like-home-products-9780228024675.php

Kordan, B. S., & Mahovsky, C. (2004). A bare and impolitic right: Internment and Ukrainian-Canadian redress. McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bohdan-Kordan

Kordan, B. S., & Melnycky, P. (Eds.). (1991). In the shadow of the Rockies: Diary of the Castle Mountain Internment Camp, 1915-1917. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CN%5CInternmentcamps.htm

Luciuk, L. Y. (1988). A time for atonement: Canada’s first national internment operations and the Ukrainian Canadians, 1914-1920. Limestone Press. https://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/15240/file.pdf

Luciuk, L. Y. (1994). Righting an injustice: The debate over redress for Canada’s first national internment operations. Justinian Press. https://www.uccla.ca/internment-books  https://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/18161/file.pdf

Luciuk, L. Y. (2001). In fear of the barbed wire fence: Canada’s first national internment operations and the Ukrainian Canadians, 1914-1920. Kashtan Press. https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cdnvmrMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra

Luciuk, L. Y. (2006). Without just cause: Canada’s first national internment operations and the Ukrainian Canadians, 1914-1920. Kashtan Press. http://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/9205/file.pdf

Luciuk, K., & Burton, N. M. (2020). Enemy alien: A true story of life behind barbed wire. Graphic novel.  https://btlbooks.com/book/enemy-alien

Luciuk, L. Y., & Sydoruk, B. (1997). “In my charge”: The Canadian internment camp photographs of Sergeant William Buck. Kashtan Press. https://www.internmentcanada.ca/education/

Marunchak, M. H. (1970). The Ukrainian Canadians: A history. Winnipeg Ukrainian Canadian Committee. Internet Archive https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1970586434884837023

Marunchak, M. H. (1964-1972). Studii do istorii ukraintsiv Kanady [Studies on the history of Ukrainians in Canada] (Vols. 1-4). Ukrainian Canadian Committee. Internet Archive https://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/27146/file.pdf

Morton, D. (1974). The Canadian general: Sir William Otter. Hakkert. Wikipedia https://www.amazon.ca/Canadian-General-Sir-William-Otter/dp/0888665350

Potrebenko, H. (1977). No streets of gold: A social history of Ukrainians in Alberta. New Star Books. Wikipedia https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_d8a5

Semchuk, S. (2018). The stories were not told: Canada’s first world war internment camps. University of Alberta Press. Internmentcanada  https://ualbertapress.ca/9781772123784/the-stories-were-not-told/

Swyripa, F., & Thompson, J. H. (Eds.). (1983). Loyalties in conflict: Ukrainians in Canada during the Great War. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OyuRz9ov2g0C&oi=fnd&pg=PP9&dq=Swyripa,+F.,+%26+Thompson,+J.+H.+(Eds.).+(1983).+Loyalties+in+conflict:+Ukrainians+in+Canada+during+the+Great+War.+Canadian+Institute+of+Ukrainian+Studies.+&ots=K1aC_qo-dF&sig=Y3HKx-Jta4CEf9otGQ3Ymg8y6Hg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

Historical Sources

Coats, R. H. (1917-1921). The alien enemy in Canada: Internment operations. In Canada in the Great World War (Vol. 2, pp. 148-149). Publishers’ Syndicate Limited. https://archive.org/stream/loyaltiesinconfl00swyr/loyaltiesinconfl00swyr_djvu.txt

Iasnovsky, P. (1961). Pid ridnym i pid chuzhym nebom [Under native and foreign skies]. Dobra Knyzhka. https://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/3719/file.pdf

Otter, W. D. (1921). Internment operations, 1914-1920. Government of Canada.  

Journal Articles

Morton, D. (1974, March). Sir William Otter and internment operations in Canada during the First World War. The Canadian Historical Review, 55(1), 32-58.   https://utppublishing.com/doi/pdf/10.3138/CHR-055-01-02

Robin, M. (1966, June). Registration, conscription, and independent labour politics, 1916-1917. Canadian Historical Review, 47(2), 101-118. https://utppublishing.com/doi/pdf/10.3138/CHR-047-02-01

Government Documents

Federal Legislation

Canada. (1914, August 22). War Measures Act, 1914 (5 George V, Chapter 2). Wikipedia J. de L. Taché. https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.9_08039/2

Canada. (2005, November 25). Internment of Persons of Ukrainian Origin Recognition Act (S.C. 2005, c. 52). https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/i-20.8/page-1.html

Parliamentary Records

Canada. Parliament. House of Commons. (1916). Parliamentary debates (Vol. 122, No. 1, pp. 849-850). https://parl.canadiana.ca/view/oop.debates_HOC3403_04/1176?r=0&s=1

Canada. Parliament. (1920). Sessional papers, No. 13. Hunter, Rose. https://publications.gc.ca/site/archivee-archived.html?url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/parl/x12-3/X12-3-7-1920-eng.pdf

Orders in Council

Canada. Privy Council Office. (1914, October 28). Order in council P.C. 2721. Registration and internment as prisoners of war where advisable.  

Canada. Privy Council Office. (1914, October 30). Order in council P.C. 2758. Registration of alien enemies – Cities and towns designated.

Archival Sources

Library and Archives Canada

Library and Archives Canada. (1914-1920). Chief Press Censor Files (RG 6, Secretary of State Papers, files 144(1), 144(c)). https://recherche-collection-search.bac-lac.gc.ca/  

Library and Archives Canada. (1914-1920). Internment Operations Files (RG 24, National Defence, multiple volumes and files). https://recherche-collection-search.bac-lac.gc.ca/  

Library and Archives Canada. (1914-1920). Office of the Custodian of Enemy Property (RG 117, Vol. 19, multiple files). https://recherche-collection-search.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/home/record?idnumber=196989&app=fonandcol  

Library and Archives Canada. (1914-1920). Immigration Branch files (RG 76).

Library and Archives Canada. (1914-1920). RCMP records (RG 18, Vol. 1770).

Library and Archives Canada. Sir Robert Borden Papers (MG 26).

Library and Archives Canada. Sir William Otter Collection (MG 30).

Library and Archives Canada. Rocky Mountain Park files (RG 84-A-2-a, Vol. 70, File R313).  

Provincial Archives

Provincial Archives of Manitoba. Ukrainian Cultural and Educational Centre archives.

Saskatchewan Archives Board. Internment-related records.

Documentary Films

Boyko, R. (Director). (2016). The camps [Digital webseries, 33 episodes]. Armistice Films. SaskToday.ca Available at https://www.internmentcanada.ca/map.cfm  

Boyko, R. (Director). (2017). That never happened: Canada’s first national internment operations [Documentary film]. Armistice Films. https://www.sasktoday.ca/central/local-news/film-looks-at-canadian-internment-camps-4141298

Luhovy, Y. (Director). (1994). Freedom had a price [Documentary film, 55 min]. La Maison de Montage Luhovy Inc. and National Film Board of Canada. https://www.nfb.ca/film/freedom_had_a_price/

Motluk, J. (Director). (2009). Jajo’s secret [Documentary film]. Omni Television. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jajo%27s_Secret

Museum Exhibitions

Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21. (2023, February 11 – April 23). Enemy aliens – Internment in Canada 1914–1920 [Travelling exhibition]. Halifax, NS. https://pier21.ca/enemy-aliens-internment-canada-1914-1920

Canadian Museum of History. Lost liberties – The War Measures Act [Travelling exhibition]. https://historymuseum.ca

Parks Canada. (2013, September 13). First World War Internment Exhibit [Permanent exhibition]. Cave and Basin National Historic Site, Banff National Park. https://parks.canada.ca/lhn-nhs/ab/caveandbasin/culture/internement-internment

Newspaper Articles

Ukrainian Canadian Press

Kanadyiskyi rusyn [Canadian Ruthenian]. (1915-1916). Multiple issues. Winnipeg. Available at University of Alberta Ukrainian Folklife Archive: https://archives.ukrfolk.ca/index.php/old-ukrainian-canadian-newspapers  

Ukrainskyi holos [Ukrainian Voice]. (1915-1918). Multiple issues. Winnipeg. Available at University of Alberta Ukrainian Folklife Archive: https://archives.ukrfolk.ca/index.php/old-ukrainian-canadian-newspapers  

Robochyi narod [Working People]. (1914-1915). Multiple issues. Winnipeg.

English Canadian Press

Brandon Sun Weekly. (1915, May 6, 27; June 3, 10). Brandon, MB.

Manitoba Free Press. (1915, July 1; August 2, 3, 5, 11; 1916, February 5, 11, 31). Winnipeg, MB.

Toronto Globe and Mail. (1916, May 16, 19). Toronto, ON.

Toronto Telegram. (1916, February 10; May 16). Toronto, ON.

Winnipeg Tribune. (1916, February 2, 8, 11). Winnipeg, MB.

Online Resources

Canadian First World War Internment Recognition Fund. (n.d.). Digital interactive map. https://www.internmentcanada.ca/map.cfm  

Canadian First World War Internment Recognition Fund. (n.d.). Project roll call: Documenting Canada’s first national internment operations. Internmentcanada https://roll-call.internmentcanada.ca/about/

Government of Canada. (n.d.). First World War resources. Library and Archives Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/library-archives/collection/research-help/military-history/first-world-war.html  

Government of Canada. (n.d.). Thematic guides – Internment camps in Canada during the First and Second World Wars. Library and Archives Canada. https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/Pages/thematic-guides-internment-camps.aspx  

Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association. (n.d.). Ukrainian Canadian internment. https://www.uccla.ca/ukrainian-canadian-internment  

Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association. (n.d.). Internment archival documents. https://www.uccla.ca/internment-archival-documents

University of Alberta. (n.d.). Old Ukrainian Canadian newspapers. Ukrainian Folklife Archive. https://archives.ukrfolk.ca/index.php/old-ukrainian-canadian-newspapers  

Theses and Dissertations

Boudreau, J. A. (1965). The enemy alien problem in Canada, 1914-1921 [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/docview/302181766?fromopenview=true&pq-origsite=gscholar

Byrne, T. C. (1937). The Ukrainian community in north central Alberta [Master’s thesis, University of Alberta].

Conference Proceedings and Chapters

Avery, D. H. (1976). The radical alien and the Winnipeg general strike of 1919. In C. Berger & R. Cook (Eds.), The West and the nation: Essays in honour of W. L. Morton (pp. 209-231). McClelland and Stewart.

Kordan, B. S. (2019). Internment in Canada during the Great War: Rights, responsibilities and diplomacy. In S. Manz, P. Panayi, & M. Stibbe (Eds.), Internment during the First World War: A mass global phenomenon (pp. 162-180). Routledge Press.

Melnycky, P. (1983). The internment of Ukrainians in Canada. In F. Swyripa & J. H. Thompson (Eds.), Loyalties in conflict: Ukrainians in Canada during the Great War (pp. 1-24). Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies.  

Educational Resources

Edmonton Public Schools. (2012). Prisoners of prejudice: Teaching resource on Ukrainian Canadian internment. https://www.ucc.ca/2011/11/14/official-book-launch-prisoners-of-prejudice-ukr-internment-at-centre-of-education-edtn-public-schools/

Royal Roads University & Valour Canada. (n.d.). Ukrainian Canadian internment lesson plans. https://warheritage.royalroads.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/4.-Internment-conversation-kit.pdf

Ukrainian Canadian Foundation of Taras Shevchenko. (n.d.). Educational materials and grants. Canadian First World War Internment Recognition Fund. Wikipedia

Manitoba Education. (2011). Інтернування українців в Канаді (1914–1920) [Internment of Ukrainians in Canada, 1914–1920]. Winnipeg: Manitoba Education. https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/languages/ukrainian/posters/internment_l3.pdf

Podcasts and Audio

Graham, S. (Host). (2020, May 14). “Enemy Alien” (History Slam Episode 146) [Audio podcast episode]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HH2sZ1cTTfg&embeds_referring_euri=https%3A%2F%2Ftheseangraham.wordpress.com%2F&source_ve_path=MjM4NTE

Brewcrime Podcast. (2021). Episode 157 – Canada’s Dark History of Internment Camps (WW1) [Audio podcast https://brewcrime.com/2024/12/17/episode-157-canadas-dark-history-of-internment-camps-ww1-internment-camps/ Exhibitions and Museums